English language student teachers pedagogical content knowledge

English language student teachers pedagogical content knowledge My study aims to analyze the relationship between English language student teachers pedagogical content knowledge learnt from the university coursework and their practice of teaching during the practicum in schools. By pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) here, I mean the knowledge to teach English as a second language at secondary level. The focus of my study is to find out what PCK student teachers learn during their English language teaching course at the university and how they apply that knowledge in the classroom during the practice teaching. In this literature review I discus the concept of teacher education programmes, the practicum, link between theory and the practicum, gaps between theory and the practicum, how to strengthen the link between theory and the practicum and brief review of research on practicum in teacher education and English language teacher education programmes. In the end I state the aim of my study and the potential research questions. The purpose of this literature review is to provide an introduction to and grounding for my study. 2. Teacher Education Programmes Teacher education programs are designed and organized to train prospective and in-service teachers. These programmes educate teachers to teach at various levels of education such as pre-primary, primary, elementary, secondary and higher secondary levels. Two common types of teacher education programmes are pre-service teacher education which is also called initial teacher education (ITE) and in-service education and training (INSET). Initial teacher education prepares the new trainee teachers to teach at different levels whereas in-service teacher education provides training to the already working teachers. (Although there is a conceptual difference between the concepts teacher education and teacher training, in this document I will be using both these concepts in the same meaning. Generally in this document, teacher education or teacher training means pre-service teacher education. If I talk about in-service education of teachers, it will be mentioned in the text). Aldrich (1990) says that teacher education programmes are important to prepare future teachers to develop their professional competencies. Laczko-Kerr and Berliner (2002) argue that university teacher preparation courses prepare better quality teachers. The objective of the teacher education programme is to equip student teachers with a set of competencies to teach in the school context (Banks et al. 2001), to cope with the complexity of challenges in their everyday teaching work (Cheng, 2010). The challenge is to help student teachers put their learning from the teacher education programme into practice. Most teacher education programmes include different components: general education; subject-matter studies; foundation of education studies; methods studies; and field experience (i.e. teaching practice) (Stuart Tatto 2000; Zeichner Gore 1990). The general education, foundation courses and methods studies comprise the theoretical component whereas field experiences focus on the practical component of teacher education programmes. Korthagen et al (2006) argue that teacher education finds itself in a difficult position in the 21st century. He presents three reasons for dissatisfaction with the teacher education programmes. First reason is the irrelevance of teacher preparation for the reality of everyday practice in schools. It has generated pressure on teacher educators to rethink about the structure and practices of teacher education. Secondly, research evidence during the final decade of 20th century shows that new teachers appear to face severe problems during their first period in the profession. Wideen, Mayer-Smith, Moon (1998) also supported this view and said that the transfer from theory (presented and learnt during teacher education courses) to practice in schools is often meager. Thirdly, new concepts of teaching and leaning have emerged and developed overtime. Constructivist (Williams Burden, 1997; Roberts, 1998; Arends, 2004; Osterman Kottkamp, 2004) and social constructivist views (Roberts, 199 8; Beck Kosnik, 2006) have dominated the theory and practice of teaching and learning. These views argue for learner-centered approaches to learning and teaching and challenge the traditional practices in teacher education. It poses challenges for teacher educators. Teacher educators have attempted to respond to this challenging phenomenon to fulfill the demand of producing effective teachers in the 21st century. Zeichner (2010) argues that the old paradigm of teacher education where academic knowledge is viewed as the authoritative source of knowledge about teaching needs to be changed to the one where there is interlink among academic, practitioner and community expertise. As knowledge is constructed and shared by learners in constructivism and social constructivism, he argues that this new epistemology of teacher education will create expanded learning opportunities for prospective teachers that will better prepare them to be successful in enacting complex teaching practices (Zeichner 2010, p. 89). Darling-Hammond, Hammerness, Grossman, Rust Shulman, 2005) concluded that research on effective teacher education programs shows that where field experiences are carefully linked with coursework and carefully mentored, teacher educators are better able to accomplish their goals in preparing teachers to successfully enact complex teaching practices. In view of the complexity of the teaching-learning process Korthagen, et al. argue that the most basic problem which is still not being addressed adequately in teacher education programmes is how to connect theory and practice in such a way that teachers would be able to handle the problems of everyday teaching through theory-guided action (Korthagen, et al. 2006, p. 1021). My research focuses on the issue of analyzing the link between theory and practice of English language teacher education in the context of Pakistan. This analysis will help to understand what student teachers learn during coursework at the university, how they learn it and how they put that learning into practice during thee practicum. In the next part I discus the concept of practicum. 3. The Practicum Practicum (also termed as teaching practice/internship/induction or field experiences) may be defines as learning by doing (Schà ¶n 1987), learning from action (Hutton 1989) or work-based learning (Foster and Stephenson 1998). Stanton Giles (1989, 180) define the practicum as field experiences that focus on professional practice and activities that are explicitly focused on pre-professional practice. The ultimate goal of the practicum is to let student teachers demonstrate specific competencies that they are expected to have mastered at different stages in their pre-service stage (Yan, 2010) Practicum placements in schools are considered to be a significant component of pre-service teachers education program (Touchon Gwyn-Paquette, 2003; Leishem 2008). Practicum plays a major role in student teachers learning. Much of what teachers need to learn must be learned in and from practice rather than in preparing for practice (Ball Cohen, 1999; Hammerness, Darling-Hammond, Bransford, 2005). Teaching practice provides opportunities for student teachers to develop a contextualized understanding of the complexities. It also provides opportunities to develop classroom management skills, lesson planning and the ability to interact with students (Richards Crookes, 1988; Farrell, 2001). According to Huling (1997), practicum experiences offer teacher candidates a place to observe and work with real students, teachers, and curriculum in natural settings (p.1). Student teachers are able to apply their theoretical knowledge in the real classroom setting. Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin (1996) note that professional development opportunities are criticized for being non-contextual and isolated from the world of practice. Practicum in teacher education programmes provides opportunities of practice in the context of school. Zeichner (2006 p. 333) says that extended teaching practice can give the student teachers exposure to practices of experienced teachers. Student teachers may observe experienced teachers and can learn from their practices. It can also develop interaction among student teachers and the other school teachers. It is clear form the above that practicum is an important component of teacher education programmes. It not only provides opportunities for applying the theoretical knowledge the strudent teachers have gained from the teacher education institutions but also develops a sense of professionalism in them. It introduces the teaching profession to the prospective teachers. They can also interact with experienced teachers and can learn from them. 3.1. Linking Theory and the Practicum (Korthagen Kessels, (1999) argue that in application of theory model of pre-service teacher education in the United States, prospective teachers are supposed to learn theories at the university and then go to schools to practice or apply what they learned on campus. (Darling_Hammond (2006, p. 307) observes that one of the perennial dilemmas of teacher education is how to integrate theoretically based knowledge that has traditionally been taught in university classrooms with the experience based knowledge that has traditionally been located in the practice of teachers and the realities of classrooms and schools. Zeichner (2010, p. 90) also supports the view that one of the most difficult tasks is to strengthen the connections between what our student teachers do in their school and community placements and the rest of their teacher education program. The inter-relationship of theoretical knowledge and practicum is further elaborated by Lewis (2007). He uses the terms conjunction and disjunction to refer to the presence or absence of the relationship between what is taught in teacher education and what is practiced in schools. By conjunction, he means that there is no clash between the knowledge gained in teacher education institutions and what is to be practiced by trainee teachers in schools. Lewis argues that disjunction or the difference between university advocated practice and what actually occurs in schools, presents the prospective teacher with a dilemma. He quotes a student teacher who in doing the practicum in school who says: the course at university emphasizes engagement and use of constructivist oriented activities however the majority of classes I am doing have teaching that is fairly teacher oriented and content focused (Lewis 2007, p. 6). This type of confusion may be common in a number of contexts. It may happen when teacher education institutions do not take into account the contextual factors in schools. Russell (1988) identifies three types of tensions in theory-practice relationship: firstly is between campus-based course work and school-based relevance; secondly, between child and teacher-centered approaches; and finally, between what a student teacher can be told and what that person does in the classroom. Such tensions can be addressed by carefully designing and implementing the teacher education courses keeping in view the context of real school teaching and student teachers previous experiences. 3.2. Gaps between Theory and the Practicum Lack of connection between campus-based teacher education courses and field experiences has been a perennial problem in teacher education programs (Bullough et al., 1997, 1999; Zeichner, 2007, 2010). Studies show that student teachers feel there is a lack of connection between the teacher education programme and the school-based teaching experiences (Hobson et al. 2008, 414). Different reasons may be attributed to the gap between theoretical and the practical component of teacher education programmes. Ashcroft Griffiths (1989) say that it is very hard to preserve the unity of theory and practice during a short teaching practice period in schools. It is very common that cooperating teachers in schools know very little about the methods courses the student teachers have completed on campus and the course teachers in the university know very little about the specific practices used in the classroom where student teachers are placed. (Zeichner, 2010). Lack of well planned supervision and guidance on the part of cooperating teachers may also lead to disconnect between what the students have learnt and what they actually practice. It is often assumed that good teaching practices are caught rather than taught (Darling-Hammond, 2009). Zeichner and Tabachnick (1981) found that many newly learnt teaching theories or conceptions developed during teacher education programmes are diluted by the initial confrontation during their teaching practice and it raises doubts whether insights from teacher education had actually been achieved (Cole Knowles, 1993). As a result of the falling short of the expected practice of the theoretical knowledge, the student teachers may adapt to the common habit of teachers to consider teacher education too theoretical and useless (Elliot, 1991). Sometimes, the courses taught at the university may not be context specific to prepare teachers. In Australian context, Commonwealth Department of Education, Science Training (2002, p. 104) reported that the theoretical components of teacher education programmes are distant, irrelevant and inaccessible. The disconnect may be in various types like the disconnect between university coursework and the teaching context, gap or lack of cooperation between the student teachers and the supervisors or/and cooperating teachers, conflict between student teachers perceived competencies and their actual performance in the practicum etc. The gaps need to be minimized if teacher educators want to produce effective teachers for complex teaching tasks. In the next part I discuss how to minimize the gaps and strengthen the link between theory and the practicum. 3.3. Strengthening the Link between Theory and the Practicum Darling-Hammond (2006) suggests that carefully constructed field experiences coordinated with campus courses are more influential and effective in supporting student teacher learning than the unguided and disconnected field experiences. Evidence shows that traditional and loosely planned and monitored model of field experiences may create obstacles in student teachers learning (Feiman-Nemser Buchmann, 1985; Zeichner, 1996). One way to prepare student teachers for actual classroom is simulative teaching in which simulations of classroom situation are enacted (Cohen, 1981). Simulative teaching sometimes proves to be a fallacy and student teachers may encounter with reality shock when teaching in actual classrooms (Korthagen et al. 2006, p. 1027). Zeichner (2010) suggests that some portion of the methods courses can be taught in partner schools to mediate the gaps between their campus courses and the students school experiences. The course tutors should deliver model lessons in the actual classroom in the partner schools where the student teachers are required to do the practice teaching. Ball Forzani (2009) also support the notion that clinical experiences should be the central focus of pre-service teacher education from which everything else in a program emanates. Cheng et al. (2010) examined theory-practice gap as perceived by student teachers in Hong Kong. On the basis of their findings, the researchers propose four strategies to close the gap and strengthen the link between theory and practice. They recommend: student teachers need to develop their own competencies and reflect on their pedagogical practice; promoting self leaning or independent learning; encouraging teacher educators to model lessons and; arranging study abroad programmes for non-native student teachers to some English speaking countries. Darling-Hammond (1994, 1999) Fullan et al. (1998) recommend more involvement of university faculty in the student teachers supervision so that they may get detailed feedback and guidance on the practicum experiences. Casey Howson (1993, 365) suggest a three-person teaching team who should meet to discuss goals and strategies and attempt to build a strong scaffolding for pre-service students. The team includes education professors, field supervisors, and cooperating teachers. Korthagen et al. (2006) argues for a close cooperation not only in the sense of school-university partnerships, but also in three-way cooperation among teachers in schools, teacher educators in universities, and those who are learning to teach. Goodlad (1990) also recommends including teacher candidates perspectives in the mentoring process. In the next part I review literature on how to improve the practicum in teacher education programmes. 4. Improving the Practicum Student teachers perceive the practicum to be the most valuable part of their teacher education for its strong influence on their views of the roles of teachers (Smith Snoek, 1996). Organizing and conducting well planned and effective practicum may better help teacher education institution to realize their objective of producing more effective teachers. There can be number of problems which reduce the effectiveness of the practicum. Yan and He (2010) identify six problems in the practicum as perceived by English language student teachers in Chinese EFL context. These are: tension between vision and reality, unreasonable schedule of the practicum, practicum schools distrust, lack of supervision, student teachers lack of motivation in preparing lessons plans and lack of sound assessment system. These problems are associated with organization of the practicum, role of supervisors, assessment system and level of motivation among student teachers to teach. As teacher educators, we will n eed to address such issues to make the practicum more effective. Some of the most significant factors which can contribute to improve the practicum in schools are school-university partnership, role of the faculty in preparing student teachers for the practicum and supervising their practice and support and cooperation of the cooperating teachers. I will discuss these separately. 4.1. School-University Partnership School-university partnership does not mean that schools are only the practice fields for student teachers. This view limits the collaboration and cooperation between schools and universities. (Korthagen et al. (2006) argues that common view of learning to teach includes the assumption that the university-based components of teacher preparation offer the theoretical underpinnings of teaching and that school teaching experience (practicum) offers a situation in which those previously learning principles of teaching are practiced. This view creates many difficulties, including the fact that the expertise of teaching practice is often assumed to reside largely in schools with teachers. Further Gorodetsky, Barak, and Hadari (2007) pointed out that even in the current wave of school-university partnerships in teacher education, colleges and universities continue to maintain hegemony over the construction and dissemination of knowledge, and schools remain in the position of practice fields where student teachers are to try out the practices provided by the university. This view implies that schools are always at the giving end. Why should the head teacher and the cooperating teachers spar enough time to mentor the student teachers and collaborate with the faculty supervisors if they are not involved in any other component of teacher education programmes? The exclusion of school teachers from designing and pedagogy of teacher education courses also limits the actual training needs of the student teachers and the scope of the practicum. The practicum in particular and teacher education programme in general can be strengthened if experienced school teachers are involved in the university programmes. Zeichner (2010) gives an example of the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee where teachers with evidence of a high level of competence in the classroom spend 2 years working in all aspects of the pre-service teacher education program, including student recruitment, general education, professional education sequence, ongoing program evaluation and renewal ef forts, and in supporting graduates in their early years of teaching. University faculty may also join the partner schools to teach the actual classroom for some period of time to refresh their knowledge of school teaching. This sort of useful partnership may help improving the practicum. 4.2. Role of the University Faculty in the Practicum In addition to working as course developers, course tutors, examiners, evaluators, managers etc. teacher educators serve as role models for the actual practice of the professional (Korthagen, Loughran, Lunenberg, 2005). This role model may be intentional or not. Loughran (1997) is of the view that modelling behaviour by the educator gives the student teachers an opportunity to experience and understand some likely outcomes of teaching. Research shows that explicit modelling of teacher educators can facilitate the translation into the student teachers own practice (Lunenberg, Korthagen Swennen 2007). Modelling is an effective tool to prepare student teachers for actual classroom teaching. The teacher educator can also deliver model lessons in the partner schools instead of creating simulative classrooms in the university. Supporting the concept of modelling, Russell (1999, p. 220) goes on to say that Universities generally, and university-based teacher educators particularly, have no right to recommend to teachers any teaching practices that they have not themselves used successfully at the university. Korthagen et al. (2006) argues that if teacher educators advocate some innovative practices that they do not model and explain in their own teacher education classrooms, teacher education reform will continue to elude us. University faculty can use modelling as a powerful strategy to prepare student teachers for the practicum. There can be some implications of model lessons as it may not be possible for trainee teachers to adapt themselves to the model lesson after some period of t ime. Furthermore, there may be more than one method of teaching the same lesson; sometimes it can be ridiculous to confine the student teachers to the method/methods used by the faculty in his/her model lesson. 4.3. Cooperating Teachers and the Practicum Support from cooperating teachers may be useful for student teachers during the practicum. But sometimes, cooperating teachers are overburdened because they also need to do their routine teaching and other school assignments simultaneously. In such a case it is likely that they do not take the practicum seriously and may not assist student teachers as they should have or would have wanted to help them. Guyton McIntyre (1990) emphasise the role of the cooperating teacher, who is most available, in developing student teachers practice. Farrell (2001) argues for support from the practicum school and cooperating teachers. He further contends that student teachers should be placed with competent cooperating teachers. If the cooperating teachers are not competent enough, they are likely to be less effective in student teachers development. Randall (1992) says that the cooperating teacher may heavily influence student teachers teaching styles through direct contact. He can provide on the s pot guidance to the student teacher. It is very common that cooperating teachers in schools know very little about the methods courses in the universities (Zeichner, 2010). Cooperating teachers need to be involved in the university courses and also trained by the university faculty for mentoring of the student teachers. It can help them perform their role more effectively in helping student teachers. In the next part I review research on the practicum in teacher education and English language teacher education and also argue for my proposed study. 5. Research on Practicum in Teacher Education and English Language Teacher Education Darling-Hammond (2006) states that there has been much discussion about the structure of teacher education programmes but there has been less discussion on what actually goes on in the teacher education courses and the clinical experiences that student teachers encounter and how the programmes add up to the knowledge and skills of the student teachers to prepare them for classroom. Yan (2010) argues that research on the practicum is mainly limited to general higher education programmes from the Western world, and the English language teaching practicum has received scarce attention. Little is known about how learners conceptualize their initial teaching experiences, and about what impact these experiences have on their professional development as teachers (Johnson 1996, 30) and what actually occurs during the practicum (Richards Crookes 1988; Freeman 1989). Snoek (1996) claimed that student teachers perceived the practicum to be the most valuable part of their teacher education for its strong influence on their views of the roles of teachers. Hodge et al. (2002) reported that the practicum had a positive impact on the student teachers attitude towards their work. Yan, (2010) contends that most second-language teacher preparation programmes simply assume that once pre-service teachers have completed their required coursework, they will be able to transfer their knowledge into effective classroom practices. It is, therefore, well worth investigating complexities and problems arising from the practicum to enhance its effect on student teachers professional growth and teacher education programmes. Cheng et al. (2010) examined the theory-practice gap by reporting a study that researched the inconsistencies between student teachers best teaching strategies and their most commonly employed ones. They conducted this study in the context of Hong Kong. A questionnaire and in-depth interviews were used to generate data. Total 228 final year student teachers of 4 years B. Ed programme completed and returned the questionnaire. In addition to it, 31 Year 4 student teachers enrolled in these programmes participated in in-depth interviews. Findings revealed three main dimensions of consideration attributing to the inconsistencies in the conceptions of teaching: pre-training experiences of student teachers, teaching context of the partner school and student needs. These considerations lead to expansive or constraining impacts on the student teachers selections of teaching strategies. Nevertheless, teacher education programmes are expected to have an expansive impact on the student teachers conceptions of teaching as well as to help them overcome constraining impacts from other sources of influence. Koeppen (1998) observed that student teachers face multiple difficulties in classroom instruction as theory versus practice occurs. Her case study of a student teacher found that the student had problems in linking university courses and classroom context during the practicum. What the student had studied for example, planning instruction and modeling did not match the reality he found in school. This student teacher struggled to reconcile himself to the teacher-centered teaching he was doing which was totally against the theory of teacher-centered learning which he had learned in his course. In the context of Pakistan, no such study has been conducted on the link between theory and teaching practicum in English language teacher education. Keeping in view the above cited literature, the present study aims to analyze the link between English language student teachers pedagogical content knowledge learnt from the university coursework and their practice of teaching during the practicum in schools. By pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) here, I mean the knowledge to teach English as a second language at secondary level. The focus of my study is to find out what PCK student teachers learn during their English language teaching course at the university and how they apply that knowledge in the classroom during the practice teaching. I pose the following questions to achieve the aim of the study: What type of pedagogical content knowledge the student teachers learn during English language teaching course at a selected teacher education department in Pakistan? How and to what extent English language student teachers apply/practice their pedagogical content knowledge to teach during the practicum in schools? What is the relationship between student teachers pedagogical content knowledge and their practice of teaching English at secondary level in Pakistan?

Jean Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development Essay -- childs intelle

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Very briefly describe Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and explain what he meant by saying that young children are egocentric. Use experimental evidence to consider this claim. Cognitive development is what psychologists talk about when discussing a child’s intellectual growth. Jean Piaget (1896 to 1980), a Swiss psychologist developed a theory of cognitive development, which is still much discussed and critiqued today. Providing a firm building block to all work done in the study of child development and the concept that young children are egocentric. Piaget’s stages are divided into four main steps of cognitive development. Stage one begins at birth and is completed at approximately two years; this is called the period of sensorimotor intelligence. Second stage builds on from the first at the age of about two years, the preoperational period lasts for five years of the child’s life. From that the child moves into the Concrete Operations stage, a stage which lasts to the age of eleven. Finally a child will reach the fourth stage the period of Formal operations aged eleven plus. Piagets first stage of intellectual growth, the Sensimotor period can be split into another six parts, each part can be tested by use of simple experiments with babies. Object Permanence is understanding that something any object is there weither or not the person can see it. For example when we put an object such as a cup down on a table and turn our back to it, it is rational to state that the cup will still be exactly where it was left. Piaget’s theory stated that babies within the Sensimotor pe... ...e of formal operations the person is now able to think hypothetically In conclusion Piagets theory of cognitive development is backed up with the experimental evidence given from experiments run with infants and children. From birth to the stage of concrete operations the child is termed egocentric. What Piaget meant by calling young children egocentrics was that they are not selfish but have not yet attained the ability to see things from another perspective. Bibilography Gleitamn,H.,Fridlund, A.J.,& Reisburg, D. (1999) Psychology, (5th ed.). New York: W.W.Norton & Co. Ginsburg,H.P.,Opper,S.(1988) Piagets Theory of intellectual development,(3rd ed.). London:Prentice Hall International (UK). Glover, J.A.,et.al.(1949).Educational psychology Principles and Applications. Boston: Little Brown and Company.

Poverty and Domestic Violence

The topics chosen from the given scenario are domestic violence, poverty and feminism. Women's Aid (2009) defines domestic violence as physical, sexual, psychological, or financial. This takes place within an intimate or family type relationship. All forms of domestic violence come from the abuser's desire for power and control. The perpetrator is most commonly male but can be female. For the purpose of the assignment I will use the terminology domestic violence rather than domestic abuse because although the latter is the preferred term a lot of the texts still refer to this as violence. One in four women will be a victim of domestic violence in their lifetime; many of these on a number of occasions. One incident of domestic violence is reported to the police every minute and on average two women are killed by a current or former partner every week (Women's Aid, 2009). These statistics speak volumes as to the enormous problem we as social workers face. This assignment will briefly discuss interventions employed to ease poverty in history. Social policy and laws pertaining to domestic violence will be highlighted. Feminism will be used to mention the origins and dynamics of domestic violence. The Ecological Theory and its relevance to social work practice will be demonstrated. Personal reflection will be given and finally a conclusion will draw together the aforementioned topics. History and political development Domestic abuse can be resultant of social structural factors such as bad housing, unemployment and poverty. One can not plot the history of domestic abuse because historically it was seen as a private family matter rather than a societal issue but it is possible to look at a potential causal issue: poverty. An act which was designed to alleviate poverty was the English Poor Laws introduced in 1601 this dictated that the poor and disabled were taken care of by the working able bodied and the local parishes. The work houses accommodated thousands of poor people who had no choice but to enter these foreboding establishments if they could not find work. Prior to this the poor were cared for by charity (Marshall, 2002). Enlightenment arose in the eighteenth century as a result of the French addressing their problem of poverty, this was more a way of thinking than a movement but this spread across Europe. This belief was that the government should reward efforts of those working and should not make those poorer when they are willing to work by failing to provide employment. (McStay Adams, 1991). Less known for helping the poor is the contribution of religious women, one such example being the Sisters of Mercy who for many years during the 1800's provided direct aid to the poor. The Sisters of Mercy helped establish social welfare systems and according to Luquet (2005) contributed to what became social work. In 1942 the Beveridge Report highlighted what was referred to as the ‘five giants'. These were idleness, squalor, want, disease and ignorance. As a result of this a programme of employment was introduced, new houses were built, benefit schemes were initiated, free healthcare was available to everyone and free secondary education was provided by the state (Aslangul et al, 2000). Thatcherism is the term referred to during the period between 1979 and 1991 when Margaret Thatcher was Prime Minister. During her time in office she was concerned with controlling Britain's money supply, known as monetarism. She began privatising public companies and introduced the controversial poll tax. When New Labour was elected they merely retreated further from a commitment to welfare. Basically, they moved away from their traditional roots (McAuley, 2003). Social policy and law Social work has witnessed unprecedented changes as a result of the ever changing social policies and new laws which in turn have forced social work to adapt at an alarming rate. Humphrey cited in Davies (2008) in reference to domestic violence wrote; significant barriers are apparent when working in this area but the increase in awareness has resulted in the development of legislation, policy and practice. The Women's Movement in Britain during the 1960's and 1970's was influenced by radical feminism from USA. The ideology of this was to campaign for equal pay, job opportunities, education, reproductive freedom, childcare, financial and legal independence and end violence against women (Dobash and Dobash, 1992). The acknowledgment of violence in families was over 150 years ago when The Act for Prevention and Punishment of Aggravated Assaults on Women and Children 1853 and the Offences Against the Person Act 1861 (McKie, 2005). The first legal recognition in recent history was given to domestic abuse and the women's need to escape from violence in their homes with the introduction of The Domestic Violence Act 1976 (Pascall, 1997). Interagency collaboration is essential when working in the area of domestic violence. Working Together provides comprehensive and detailed guidance for professionals (Department for Education and Skills, 2006). To protect the victim of domestic violence the Protection from Harassment Act 1997 is in place which can be used to protect someone from behaviour which causes psychological injury. The Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004 extend this power (Brayne and Carr, 2008). The Adoption and Children Act 2002 was amended to include the definition of harm, which now states ‘impairment suffered from seeing or hearing the ill treatment of another'. Those vulnerable because of domestic violence or the threat of violence are given priority for housing according to the Homeless Act 2002 (Alcock, 2008). Chung et al (2001) reported that the government suggested to gp's to consider routinely screening women for domestic violence to try and increase rates of identification. However, it is only recently that this concept has been implemented in midwifery but has yet to become commonplace in general practice. This is disappointing because more women are seen by gp's. Also, women may see their doctor about something which may appear unrelated but as Humphreys and Thiara (2003) explain depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and self harm are so prevalent amongst abused women these are referred to as ‘symptoms of abuse' which could be picked up and acted upon by gp's. Feminism Dutton (2007) wrote that psychiatry in the early twentieth century had determined that women remain in abusive relationships because the punishment fills an unconscious need in them. Fortunately, this viewpoint was seen as victim blaming by feminists. Feminists all share the same basic philosophy of wanting fairness and equality. There are however several feminist theories such as radical feminism. It was feminists who first highlighted domestic violence and other taboo issues which were previously beyond public scrutiny because it was thought these belonged to the private sphere of the family (Hester and Pearson cited in Trevithick 2005). Research shows there is a link between domestic violence and child abuse. Women with learning disabilities have been found to be vulnerable as are physically disabled women (Humphries cited in Davies, 2008). A very powerful statement by Stacey and Price cited in Pascall (1997) wrote domestic violence is a way men assert power over women. Foucalt (1979) disputes this suggestion because he says power is not used against another and power is not seen as a property or possession. Karl Marx highlighted women's inequalities and their oppression within society but capitalism was mentioned as being the main reason for this (McAuley, 2003). According to Harris (2005) feminists criticise the media especially the film industry for the film industry for their explicit portrayal of sex and glorifying male violence against women. Similarly, reported allegations of rape are increasing while convictions in the UK decline (McKie, 2005). This knowledge does not instil much confidence in women and in my opinion damages the feminist principles that have taken so long to construct. It must be recognised that only a small number of men are interested in pro-feminist theories and ideas. Ecological theory, social work practice and reflection. The ecological theory in sociology has a direct connection to human interactions. It explores the relationship of the physical environment and human culture (Macionis and Plummer, 2005). Using this theory it attempts to link violence in the family to the broader social environment. As a social worker one must recognise women who are being subjected to domestic violence and need a network of support. These include cultural, formal, informal social family networks, the closer family setting and circumstances and family history. It is important to know the policies and laws pertaining to domestic violence. Also, it is beneficial to have knowledge of safe houses, counselling services and practical support. My personal opinion about domestic violence has not changed over the years. Although, I have recently recognised and accept the relationship between low self esteem and domestic violence. I had a fortunate upbringing and my father always instilled in me the importance of having self respect first and foremost when meeting people. I did have a friend who was subjected to domestic violence but she did not confide in me until her boyfriend had left her for another woman, which I told her was a blessing for her. The thought of someone being violent towards another human being makes me feel sick and I can not comprehend what motivates anyone to abuse another person. Conclusion This assignment has explored domestic violence, poverty, history and politics in relation to poverty. Policies and laws were mentioned which protect those subjected to domestic violence. Feminism was discussed, the ecological theory was briefly applied to domestic violence and an explanation was given to its relevance to social work. Finally, I reflected on my own thoughts and feelings in relation to domestic violence. Having completed this assignment and read widely on the subject of domestic violence I feel this is an emotive area which requires much empathy and support. I believe the most important qualities when working with this issue is to be the victims advocate and empower them on their terms.

Lighting Units - their uses, pros and cons.

Lighting Units - their uses, pros and cons. I will be discussing lighting units, their uses and their pro's and con's. The ability to construct a well light set is relied upon the Director of Photography, and ranges from being used for dramatic intensity or just softening a room. Unlike human eyes, sets need some adjustments to keep up with lighting balance. A good knowledge on differing colour temperatures and what gels can provide for a scene.INTERIOR LIGHTING EQUIPMENTA lighting fixture, or better related to as a Lighting UNIT is basically what we refer to the globe or bulb. They are identified by type and power consumption. The brightness of a bulb is referred to as the Wattage, which is a reflection of its power consumption.The intensity of light decreases the further from the subject it is - know to us as Falloff. Falloff is inversely proportional to the square of the distance e.g.English: Stage lights at Mie University Festival 2...(‚/x"). The sharper the falloff, the closer the subject is to the light. Soft light s ources fall off more sharply than focussed hard light sources.COLOUR TEMPERATUREColour temperature, measured in degrees Kelvin, is the measure of how warm or cool the light sources and colours are. Our brain compensates for the differing colour temperatures and so what appears white to us, may appear to have a green, orange or blue tint on a camera (with no colour balancing). Daylight is 5600K.BULBSBulbs differ in type, colour and intensity. An average household bulb emits 2900K Wattage while white Tungsten emits 3200K. Photo Bulbs look and are like average household bulbs yet are more powerful like Photofloods emitting 250W brightness.Majority of films use 3200K Tungsten lights, which are small and efficient. They can be balanced to daylight by changing its colour temperature. This is accomplished by placing a blue gel...

Japan was recently hit by an earthquake, followed Essays - Business

Japan was recently hit by an earthquake, followed Essays - Business Japan was recently hit by an earthquake, followed by a tsunami and a nuclear meltdown, which strongly eliminates the supply sources. That will lead to a supply shortage and increase in delivery time. This report states the communication problems faced by Honda Canada. In response to this situation Honda Canada set up its emergency task force headed by Gardner who is the vice president of sales and marketing. Diverse background of David Gardner will able him to see problem from different viewpoints of business good candidate for EFT. He emphasizes the priority on people over business. Automotive industry follows the rule that the diversity of locations of global automotive production. Disasters will affect our supply in Japan o dispersed supply chain influence our assembly line. Honda s vision is to focus on customer service which rises the problem how to communicate the situation Since Honda Canada is largely a distributor, who relies on the finished products from around the world. And four tier supplier structure makes a delay on our awareness of the problems and unable to obtain first-hand information of suppliers .113 Suppliers are severely impacted by the natural disaster including suppliers supplying critical inputs. In face of this situation, Honda Global convey two strategic decisions production facilities keep running and don't lay off associates. ETF feels like the production should be prioritized on the basis of demand. Immediate goal is to get all employee dealers and customer on board and ensure alignment For employee, it is important to keep a balance between consistency and confidentiality. It means we should be open and honest with internal communication and avoid competitors taking advantage of our vulnerabilities. Dealers focus on their own businesses, increased delivery time and limited output will affect our credibility. find a way to communicate. Since they get information mainly fromm field operations associates , we could start form here train them Customers are driven by needs than wants. The most important thing is to convey the information that Honda is still in business. cultural issues it hard for the communicaton .inability to obtain complete accurate information make it harder to decide the information disclosed to the public.

Summary review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Summary review - Essay Example ’ and motivates the man to interact with the other employees so that he can learn about the styles that he uses as a manager (Blanchard and Johnson 14). In order to be an effective manager, Blanchard and Johnson have given three primary secrets in the book. The first secret is open minded goal setting. According to Blanchard and Johnson (18), this is the one minute management foundation. They vouch for the 80-20 rule of goal setting. By this, they simply imply that 80% of results that are really important come 20% of goals that were set. This simply entails making people aware of what they should do in their duties. In one minute goal setting, the first step is agreeing on the goals. This is followed by looking out for good behavior, then writing out each of the set goals in not more than 250 words. The fourth step entails reading and re-reading each goal, which should be less than a minute. The next step requires one to take a minute off each day to evaluate their performance and finally seeing whether or not the goals match their behavior (Blanchard and Johnson 22). The second secret is one minute praisings (Blanchard and Johnson 24). The two authors point out that people can reach their maximum potential if they are helped by effective managers to know every time they do something right. Blanchard and Johnson note that when people produce good results, they tend to feel really good about themselves. The first step in one minute praisings is letting people know up front that you are going to inform them about how they are doing. The second step is praising people immediately and then telling people what they do right, immediately they do it and in specific terms. Also, it is important to let people know you feel great regarding what they have done right and how it is helpful to the business and other people in it. Encouraging them to continue doing more of the same also works well. Finally, it is important to show people who do well that you support their

Role of Farmers Markets in the Mainstream Food System Research Paper

Role of Farmers Markets in the Mainstream Food System - Research Paper Example Farmers markets in Ontario nowadays have become one of the hottest shopping spots where consumers drop in to buy fresh vegetables and fruits directly from the farmers. It has been revealed that â€Å"In Ontario.... sales at Farmers Markets total almost $600 million, leading to an economic impact of an astounding $1.8 billion† (Farmersmarketsontario). Some other studies have shown that â€Å" 60 to 70 percent of market-goers visit neighboring businesses on their way to and from the market† thereby helping other local businesses also to flourish (Farmersmarketsontario). Some farmers markets have also been contributing their profits to social causes in the form of donations to the local senior centers, libraries, and schools, thereby linking the local economy with social upliftment (Hinsley and Pascoe, 1). In addition, a review of the materials available regarding the farmers market has indicated that the 100-mile diet concept is promptly fulfilled by this initiative. This concept has a meaning that, you â€Å"try eating only from producers within 100 miles of your home† (Winter, 88). This decision is taken in order to contribute to the sustainability of local agriculture and local livelihood as well as to evolve a healthy eating habit in which maximum fresh food is consumed. The farmer's markets have also been lauded as environmentally friendly because, â€Å"locally produced food has not traveled hundreds of miles to reach them (the consumers), increasing the fossil fuel emissions that lead to global climate change† (Hinsley and Pascoe, 2).  Ã‚